Center for Disaster Philanthropy

Derecho

Overview

A derecho (said with a softer “ch” as in “cheese” instead of a hard “ch” as in echo) is a line of intense, long-lived and widespread thunderstorms that move quickly across a long distance. According to the National Weather Service, “if the wind damage swath extends more than 240 miles (about 400 kilometers) and includes wind gusts of at least 58 mph (93 km/h) or greater along most of its length, then the event may be classified as a derecho.”

Derecho damage in Iowa, 2020. (Source: USDA)

While the magnitude of damage from a derecho is often compared to the damage from a hurricane, derechos are not “inland hurricanes.” Hurricanes form around a central “eye” and have rotational winds that rotate around the center, while derechos form in a line and have straight-line winds that extend out from the derecho itself.

In North America, derechos are most common in almost every state sitting east of a line that extends from Montana to New Mexico and all the way to the east coast. During times of extreme heat, derechos may form as far north as the Canadian provinces of Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Around the world, derechos have also been recorded in Bangladesh and India, parts of Europe and South America, South Africa and China.

While many people are unfamiliar with the word “derecho” because it is such a rare weather hazard, it was first used by Professor Gustavus Hinrichs in connection with a storm on July 31, 1877. In addition to the August 2020 derecho, there have been several other significant derechos in the U.S., including seven multi-state derechos across the U.S. between the end of April and middle of July 2020. The Midwest derecho in August received more attention because of the extent of the damage and impact. There were also back-to-back derechos on the east coast during May 2018 and a series of three derechos in four weeks that affected west-central Ohio in 2012. One of the latter storms became part of the June 2012 North American derecho on June 29 and 30. That derecho caused nearly $3 billion in damage across six states and Washington, D.C., and killed 22 people.

Outside of the U.S., notable derechos have included a series of derechos across central Europe on Aug. 10-12, 2017 that killed six people, left approximately 700,000 buildings without power and resulted in almost 22,000 damage reports. A derecho in the Huanghuai area of China killed 22 people on June 3-4, 2009 when it struck the provinces of Sanxi, Henan, Shandong, Anhui and Jiangsu.

Key Facts

  • Derechos pose the highest risk to people engaging in outdoor activities. This is especially important for those who may not be close to shelter like when they are camping, hiking or participating in watersports. The speed with which derechos can move means that people do not have the same amount of time to seek shelter that they would expect from a typical thunderstorm.
  • Derechos are so big that they may cover multiple National Weather Service (NWS) forecasting regions. The size and speed with which derechos move mean that some people may not get an advanced warning, especially if they do not have access to weather updates or wireless emergency alerts.
  • Derechos have a distinct damage profile. Damage from a derecho will point in the same direction because of the straight-line winds, while damage from a tornado will point in several directions.
  • As heat waves increase in duration and frequency, derechos will follow. Derechos are most common during heat waves as they will form along the boundary of the heatwave and race along the border between the hot, high-pressure system and the cooler systems around it.
  • The presence of a derecho does not eliminate the possibility of a tornado. In many cases, tornadoes can be spawned by the supercells that form the derecho itself, essentially causing a storm within a storm.

How to Help

  • Support improving the accuracy of prediction and warning systems. Though many improvements have been made, derechos remain difficult to predict. Improved warning systems, such as those that call a home or wireless phone, are more reliable than warning sirens. FEMA introduced the Wireless Emergency Alert system, which sends text messages via wireless phones in the event of an emergency. The National Weather Service can also send severe weather alerts during a derecho.
  • Help fund informational programs for those living in the most vulnerable areas. Overcoming misinformation related to derechos is important. Derechos are not “inland hurricanes” or very large tornadoes; they are a distinct weather phenomenon and should be treated as such. Yet, many people are unaware of their risk because derechos are such rare events.
  • Fund building code changes and support structural improvement. In the areas most vulnerable to derechos, a typical home can withstand winds of 80 miles per hour, roughly equivalent to an EF0 tornado. Building houses, offices and other structures to withstand tornadoes will also improve their resilience towards derechos because there is a significant overlap in the areas where tornadoes and derechos are most common. Improved building methods could help reduce future death and destruction. Some simple steps, such as anchoring manufactured homes to concrete foundations or reinforcing garage doors, could make a significant difference.
  • In the immediate aftermath of a devastating derecho, needs are sometimes met by an outpouring of response, but full recovery can take years. Derechos do not discriminate; these rare weather events can level government buildings, businesses, crops, farms and homes. When schools are damaged, particularly in small communities, life cannot return to normal. When businesses are damaged, the community’s economy suffers. Long-term recovery efforts must focus on creating a plan to minimize future damage, such as strengthening buildings and building codes, helping disadvantaged populations to receive legal aid to navigate FEMA rules and providing low-interest loans to small businesses.

What Funders Are Doing

Because derechos are rare, there has not been a significant amount of support directed towards derechos specifically. However, with derechos gaining prominence as more than just “bad thunderstorms,” more funds are being directed towards them.

Community Learning Series – Equity in Disaster Recovery from GCR Community Foundation on Vimeo.

In response to the August 2020 derecho event, many philanthropic and corporate organizations have stepped up to provide support in unique ways:

 
Earlier grants related to derechos include:

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Drought

Overview


According to the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) drought causes more deaths and displaces more people than any other natural disaster. UNCCD also states that by 2050, worldwide population growth will result in a 50 percent increased demand for water.

Drought is often defined as an unusual period of drier than normal weather that leads to a water shortage. However, high temperatures and lack of precipitation are not the only causes of drought; overuse and misuse of water can also result in drought.

Droughts can occur in any climate zone and are a normal part of the climate cycle. They can be short or last several years.

Like other weather hazards, droughts may require extra vigilance or a change in normal behavior. For example, water usage such as watering lawns may be restricted. Similarly, camp or trash fires may be prohibited to prevent a wildfire.

According to LiveScience there are four types of drought:

  • Meteorological drought is specific to different regions, depending on the amount of yearly precipitation that’s average for that area. For example, the southwest portion of the United States averages less than 3 inches (7.6 centimeters) of precipitation per year, while the Northwest gets more than 150 inches (381 cm) per year, according to the U.S. Department of Interior. A decrease in precipitation compared to the historical average for that area would qualify as a meteorological drought.
  • Agricultural drought accounts for the water needs of crops during different growing stages. For instance, not enough moisture at planting time may hinder germination, leading to low plant populations and a reduction in yield.
  • Hydrological drought refers to persistently low water volumes in streams, rivers and reservoirs. Human activities, such as drawdown of reservoirs, can worsen hydrological droughts. Hydrological drought is often linked with meteorological droughts.
  • Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for water exceeds the supply. Examples of this kind of drought include too much irrigation or when low river flow forces hydroelectric power plant operators to reduce energy production.

The U.S. Drought Monitor is a weekly map – released every Thursday – that highlights drought risk across the country. The map categorizes drought into five levels of severity:

  • Abnormally dry (D0) – showing areas that may be going into (short-term dryness affecting plant growth) or are coming out of drought (still exhibiting some lingering water shortages).
  • Moderate (D1) – there may be voluntary water-use restrictions in place; water shortages are developing, there may be some damage to pastures or crops
  • Severe (D2) – water shortages are common and water restrictions are in place
  • Extreme (D3) – major losses of crops and pastures; widespread water shortages
  • Exceptional (D4) – water emergencies in place due to extreme shortages of water

Produced since 1999, the Drought Monitor is a joint project of the National Drought Mitigation Center at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). According to a Drought Monitor brochure it is used in several ways:

  • The USDA uses the drought monitor to trigger disaster declarations and eligibility for low-interest loans.
  • The Farm Service Agency uses it to help determine eligibility for their Livestock Forage Program.
  • The Internal Revenue Service uses it for tax deferral on forced livestock sales due to drought.
  • State, local, tribal and basin-level decision makers use it to trigger drought responses, ideally along with other more local indicators of drought.

A similar process and scale is used at the international level through the Global Integrated Drought Monitoring and Prediction System (GIDMaPS).

Key Facts

– Cover 41 percent of the earth’s surface
– Are inhabited by 30 percent of the world’s population (2.5 billion people)
– Support 50 percent of the world’s livestock
– Grow 44 percent of the world’s food
– Account for the majority of the world’s poor, with around 16 percent living in chronic poverty. Most of the world’s poor live in dry areas, with 400 million living on less than $1.25 per day.

  • Additionally, the CGIAR Research program states that drylands lose the equivalent of 23 hectares (or 56.8 acres) per minute to drought and desertification – a loss of 20 million tons of potential grain production every year.
  • At the onset of a drought, the visuals are not as dramatic as those associated with hurricanes or wildfires, yet, droughts are one of the costliest weather events. According to the National Center for Environmental Information (NCEI) droughts are second only to hurricanes in types of phenomena associated with billion-dollar weather disasters over the past three decades. Annual losses in the U.S. are close to $9 billion.
  • The most famous U.S. drought historically is the 1930s Dust Bowl drought, but there have been at least three major droughts in the past 100 years. Between 1980 and 2014, there were 22 $1 billion plus drought events within the United States. Sixteen of them cost a combined $210 billion and killed thousands of people.

How to Help

  • Support eco-farming initiatives. Drought is often exacerbated by high water usage for agriculture so funders should support agricultural initiatives and technological adaptations that reduce reliance upon water and/or decrease amount of water used.
  • Fund drought impact projects. Drought often leads to hygiene issues and famine. Support delivery of food supplements and projects that provide low-cost grains, proteins and other foods to communities. Similarly, projects that address water delivery and provision of water for sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are important.
  • Educate more young people about how to adapt to a warming and drier climate. They will spend more of their lives in an unstable environment. Two programs designed to teach students about climate science and impacts are the Alliance for Climate Education and the National Wildlife Federation’s Eco-Schools USA program.
  • Fund more private and public research on the most effective methods of preventing drought. Educating the public, particularly farmers and policy-makers, is key to ensuring prevention of drought.
  • Fund public education campaigns about reducing water usage. Many people assume water is a never-ending resource. They need to learn how to change their habits regarding water usage including reducing outdoor water use, learning how to identify and fix leaks and the availability of water saving appliances or fixtures (like low-flush toilets).
  • Support the development of water retaining gardens and initiatives. This includes prioritizing public policies that include water retention gardens, native plantings and better water use practices.
  • Support the adaptation of water saving appliances and fixtures for low-income communities. People with the least resources would benefit the most from reducing water bills. Given that most of the world’s poor live in dry lands, initiatives to support more efficient use of water would go a long way.

What Funders Are Doing

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Earthquakes

Overview

Striking without warning, earthquakes often are among the most devastating natural disasters. In the first decade of the 21st century alone earthquakes, accounted for 60 percent of deaths from natural disasters, according to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). One of the deadliest earthquakes hit in 2010, when more than 225,000 people were killed as the result of a particularly harrowing earthquake in Haiti.

Caused by the movement of plates along fault lines on the earth’s surface, earthquakes often leave a monumental path of instant death and destruction. In some cases, however, the quake is only the beginning of the trouble, such as the tsunami and nuclear meltdown that followed the massive 2011 earthquake in Japan. More recently, a pair of tremblors struck southern and central Mexico eleven days apart in September 2017, killing more than 300 and toppling thousands of homes and businesses.  Occurring on the 32nd anniversary of the 1985 Mexico City earthquake that killed an estimated 10,000 people, a commemoration and drill had been held just hours before in the city.

In addition to Mexico City, some of the world’s most populous cities—Tokyo, New York, Mumbai, Delhi, Shanghai, Kolkata and Jakarta—lie on fault lines.

Rescue workers dig through the rubble of a fallen building in the Condesa neighborhood of Mexico City on Tuesday Sept. 19, 2017. (Photo by Dominic Bracco II for Direct Relief)

Quakes are measured on a Richter scale of 1.0 to 10.0, gauging the intensity of shocks. Each year, some 900,000 quakes with a 2.0 or smaller affect the world; while those are large enough to be measured by seismographs, they are not felt by most. Earthquakes of 7.0 or higher, which cause serious damage, occur at a rate of about 100 per year. Those higher than 8.0 on the Richter scale, able to completely destroy a city, occur roughly every five or 10 years.

In the United States, three significant fault lines have the potential for tremendous damage. The San Andreas Fault, for one, runs the length of California. While the last mega-quake was in 1906, the state has been beset by large earthquakes on a frequent basis. Consequently, the state has somewhat stringent building codes to withstand the shaking.

Two other areas of the country are not quite as prepared. The Cascadia Subduction Zone in the Pacific Northwest stretches from Seattle to Northern California and experiences a giant quake every 300-600 years; the last was in 1700 according to the U.S. Geological Survey. The New Madrid Seismic Zone links Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri and Mississippi. Three earthquakes in excess of 8.0 occurred there in 1811 and 1812; scientists say those quakes likely were larger than the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, though modern measurements did not exist then. Both faults have a significant likelihood of triggering a major earthquake in the next half century.

Internationally, the Pacific Ring of Fire is home to 90 percent of the world’s earthquakes and 75 percent of the world’s active volcanoes. According to National Geographic, “It is shaped more like a 40,000-kilometer (25,000-mile) horseshoe. A string of 452 volcanoes stretches from “the southern tip of South America, up along the coast of North America, across the Bering Strait, down through Japan, and into New Zealand. Several active and dormant volcanoes in Antarctica, however, ‘close’ the ring.” There have been several substantial earthquakes in this area including the May 22, 1960 Valdivia earthquake which, at 9.5 on the Richter scale, is the largest earthquake ever recorded.

Key Facts

  • In the immediate aftermath of an earthquake, providing relief is difficult—if not impossible. Roads, bridges and airports are disabled. Communications systems are challenged. Emergency aid that can arrive often is focused on search-and-rescue operations. Consequently, many affected find they must provide for their own basic needs for the first few days.
  • The aftermath of an earthquake may bring disease, especially in resource-poor countries.In Haiti, a post-earthquake outbreak of cholera killed more than 7,000. The number is small compared to the loss of life from the earthquake itself, but the cholera outbreak stretched for more than a year and sickened more than 520,000. Haiti’s poor water system was partially blamed for the spread of disease.
  • Countries that strengthen building codes often reduce death and destruction. According to one study, the damage in Haiti was twice that of other 7.0 earthquakes. Poor-quality concrete, a building staple, was blamed for many building failures. A 2008 earthquake in China brought investigations into shoddy material used in school buildings after 90,000 died. On the other end of the spectrum is Chile, which has used concrete walls as a brace for its buildings due to the frequency of quakes there. When an 8.8 magnitude quake struck in 2010, fewer than 1,000 people died.
  • In the United States, earthquakes are not isolated to one region of the country. According to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 45 states and territories are at moderate to high risk of earthquakes. Twenty-six urban centers are also at risk. In 2011, an earthquake centered in Virginia was felt from North Carolina to New York and caused damage to federal monuments in Washington, D.C.
  • Earthquake recovery takes years, though interest wanes. In 2012, the United Nations sought $230 million to continue aiding Haitians. Though 500,000 Haitians lived in tents two years after the quake, only 19 percent of the aid sought by the U.N. had been received.

How To Help

  • Fund innovative building programs and education, particularly in resource-poor countries. Poorly constructed buildings collapse in earthquakes; falling debris is the greatest cause of death. Some experiments with straw houses and bamboo are underway but overcoming local superstitions about alternative building materials is necessary.
  • Transfer knowledge from prepared communities to those at risk. Cities and countries that experience the most frequent smaller earthquakes often are extremely well-prepared while others that are due for a major earthquake may not be.
  • Invest in water system initiatives. Vital services are important to stop the spread of disease. Yet in an earthquake, infrastructure often is damaged. Alternative water supplies can be vital to stopping disease. Both small-scale water supplies—for rural areas—and large systems for urban centers are needed.

What Funders Are Doing

– Mercy Corps received $150,000 to support economic recovery and growth of small businesses affected by the earthquake.

– Fundación Hogares was awarded $74,819 to support local economic and neighborhood recovery in five specific neighborhoods in the Jujutla municipality of Mexico.

– Habitat for Humanity Mexico received $95,183 to support home rebuild projects for 178 families in Puebla who are operating home-based businesses.

– Fondo Acción Solidaria (FASOL) was awarded $19,000 for the creation of a cultural center that allows the community to benefit from meeting space, workshop implementation and cooperatively organized community space.

  • In 2018, the Lenore and Charles Hale Fund at the Seattle Foundation, awarded a grant to Centro de Apoyo al Movimiento Popular Oaxaqueño in Juarez, Mexico to provide consulting, training and technical support to rebuild communities in Oaxaca affected by the recent earthquakes.
  • In 2012, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation awarded UC Santa Cruz, Department of Ocean Science, School of Earth and Marine Science a grant of $757,876 to study the fault that caused the March 2011 earthquake in Japan. The grant enabled participation in the international rapid-response project, Japan Trench Fast Drilling Project, which has established the first- ever underwater earthquake observatory by deep-water drilling at the site of the March 2011 Tohoku megathrust earthquake.
  • The W.M. Keck Foundation provided a $1 million grant to scientists at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute to build and install an observatory at the expected rupture zone of the Cascadia fault.
  • The Skoll Foundation has devoted $1.25 million to support Build Change in its pursuit of training homeowners, local construction workers, governments and nongovernmental organizations on retrofitting and rebuilding safely in developing countries vulnerable to natural disasters like earthquakes.

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Education

Overview

When issues of survival are at hand, keeping children up on their studies might appear less of a priority. However, right alongside emergency shelter, nutrition, protection and other essentials, education provides stability, hope, normalcy and resources for the present and the future of any disaster-affected community. A return to the classroom also helps restore a sense of routine for children, even while their parents or caregivers are dealing with the aftermath of the destruction to home, work and community.

Tech. Sgt. Amanda Given, Air Force Civil Engineer Center emergency management officer, leads interactive exercises at Springfield Elementary School in Bay County, Florida, to teach students how to prepare for natural and man-made disasters. (U.S. Air Force photo by Brian Goddin)

When children are unable to learn and grow intellectually because of natural disasters, displacement, complex humanitarian emergencies and other life-altering events, those communities cannot fully recover. In addition, since schools often serve as community hubs, families may miss entry points for health, nutrition and psychosocial care without them. School buildings that are not destroyed in a disaster may act as community shelters, delaying students’ access to schools or limiting availability of certain programs (i.e. cancellation of physical education if the gymnasium is serving as a shelter). Education nurtures development, encompassing growth in emotions, social skills, knowledge and mental capacity. Post-disaster, it also serves an essential role in helping children — and their families — cope. School lunch and after-care programs may become even more important than normal.

Within the U.S., post-disaster schooling is usually interrupted for a short-time and efforts are made to get children back in the classroom as soon as possible. The Brookings Institution reported that while return to school took up to three months for students in New Orleans after Katrina, “Disaster preparedness goes a long way in reducing the impact of natural crisis on education: Following the massive 8.9 magnitude earthquake in Japan, where schools were physically destroyed and the lives of teachers and children lost, classes commenced a mere week after the disaster in disaster-proof and multi-hazard resilient buildings.”

American schools have mandated the number of classroom days each student must complete; following a disaster schools either need to waive those requirements or make adjustments. After the 2017 hurricanes, Manatee County schools in Florida added 10 minutes to each school day for three months and decreased the length of its Thanksgiving break to accommodate for lost days.

Across the globe, according to the most recent UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) studies, 263 million children and youth are out of school. And when it comes to those displaced by conflict and complex humanitarian emergencies, estimates on how long they will be away from school range from six to eight years. The schooling simply cannot wait. Families may make choices about who returns to school after a disaster; often male children are allowed to continue their education while girls must work to support the family’s recovery.

Key Facts

  • Disasters hit some populations harder than others, but children and youth are typically among the most vulnerable. Natural disasters can separate families and related trauma can heavily disrupt childhood development. When it comes to complex humanitarian emergencies, according to UNHCR, almost half of the world’s forcibly displaced people are children. While displaced, if out of school, they miss key protection from abuse, neglect, violence, exploitation and other detriments.
  • Education is essential for both genders, but efforts to reach girls are especially important. UNESCO Institute for Statistics reports girls are more likely to be out of school than boys. Without schooling, girls are more likely to be illiterate and unprepared for future life challenges—including work opportunities and chances for a better existence.
  • Education is closely linked to many other components of humanitarian response, including water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), protection, camp management, shelter, and health. It was not one of the original nine thematic clusters established by the United Nations in 2005, but was added at a later date with UNICEF and Save the Children as agency leads. For a comprehensive response, educational efforts must be included in disaster risk reduction strategies, post-disaster rapid assessments and funding.
  • It is not enough that education is present for disaster-affected children. Emphasis also must be placed on the quality and relevancy of the educational offerings. These offerings can make all the difference in a community’s ability to recover today — and to overcome poverty, illness, inequality and lack of participation tomorrow.
  • Children from families with resources/connections may access school, leaving others behind. After a disaster, a family with wealth may try to send their child to a private school to ensure education is not delayed. Similarly, when families have relatives in an unaffected area, children may be sent to live with them. Schools in Florida took in thousands of students from Puerto Rico — 2,000 in Orlando alone.

How to Help

  • Advocate for greater inclusion of education in humanitarian response and back it up with funding. These efforts must also include education for those with physical and developmental disabilities.
  • Support efforts to involve children in disaster preparedness and planning. Participation in planning can give them an added sense of security, comfort and confidence, if and when a disaster occurs.
  • Pre-position educational supplies in disaster-prone areas. Include for example, textbooks, early childhood development kits, recreational activities and school-in-a-box kits.
  • Strengthen local partnerships. Shore up the capacity of those already working in education in disaster-prone areas; they will have the most accurate portrait of what is needed, should disaster strike.
  • Train educators and administrators in the assessment and management of risk factors, in addition to methods of offering psychosocial support. The school setting offers a rich opportunity for ongoing assessments.
  • Post-disaster, support the construction of temporary learning spaces. These should incorporate standards for appropriate lighting, size, etc., to disrupt the learning process as little as possible.
  • Invest in the design and building of educational structures that can better withstand the elements and provide shelter and protection in disaster-prone areas. Studies of the effects of previous disasters and implementation of best practices can help schools maintain their status as community hubs and safe places for all.
  • Teach disaster risk reduction (DRR) strategies. People of all ages can lend a hand in mitigating the effects of disaster.
  • Support the development and implementation of early warning systems in disaster-prone areas. The more warning, the more time to prepare—and the better the long-term outcome.
  • Develop effective school-based response plans. Include disaster drills and safety assessments.

What Funders Are Doing

In many cases, donors still do not specifically fund education in the context of disasters. What has increased, however, is the use of schools to deliver other risk reduction initiatives. Much work is still to be done in highlight the importance of education for the world’s disaster-affected communities both today and tomorrow.

A few efforts in recent years include:

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Emergency and Interim Shelter

Overview

“Shelter” conjures up images of safety, security, fortification and a place to call your own. It is more than protection from the environment, it is what grounds people to their family and community. Disasters, both manmade and natural, can strip that connection away and leave people vulnerable to violence, disease, malnutrition and dehydration. It can result in increased vulnerability for already vulnerable populations. After a disaster, shelter is more than a place to rest, it is a place of security, access to food, water and medical treatment. A place to start recovering after a disaster.

Photo by UNICEF/2018/Moreno; CC BY 2.0)

Despite ongoing work, and lessons learned from previous disasters, shelter for people affected by disasters remains a challenge. Emergency and interim shelter during and after disasters relies on efficient and effective response plans, logistics and sufficient capacity among responding organizations to maintain the appropriate levels of service. Victims of disasters, refugees fleeing violence and poverty and displaced people who are unable to return home all rely on emergency and interim shelter.

Well-planned and executed shelter facilities can ease the transition from pre-disaster life to post-disaster life for people worldwide. Emergency and interim shelters should be expected during the response phase of a disaster, when outside services and infrastructure may be limited or non-existent. As a result, they require appropriate planning and pre-positioning of necessary supplies in locations that can be easily accessed without outside help. While some may continue to operate into the recovery phase, they are not intended to be a permanent solution to housing needs after a disaster.

In some situations, like the complex humanitarian emergencies in Yemen and Venezuela these shelter facilities become de facto homes and housing, especially for refugees and internally displaced people. When people have fled their homes because of violence, poverty or any other reason, they do not necessarily have time to ensure shelter or housing is available. Many of them will end up in emergency or interim shelters and camps while they await the opportunity to emigrate or return to their homes and rebuild their lives.

The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) said in its report Forced Displacement in 2018 that 13.6 million people were newly displaced that year, both inside their own country and to other countries. In 2018, there were 70.8 million people who were forcibly displaced worldwide. Two-thirds of the displaced people around the world came from just five countries: Syria, Afghanistan, South Sudan, Myanmar and Somalia. Half of those were children, of whom at least 138,600 were considered to be unaccompanied or separated from their families, though the UNHCR believes that to be a “significant understimate.”

Developed nations will have less of a need for emergency and interim shelter, thanks to strong building codes and private insurance. Strong building codes that are regularly enforced mean that buildings are less likely to be damaged when a disaster happens. Private insurance will allow the financial risk to be spread among a large group of people, providing faster reconstruction. People in developed nations are also less likely to become internally displaced or refugees because of strong social supports and government assistance. However, some immediate shelter assistance will be required during an evacuation and the immediate aftermath of a disaster. In the U.S., these are usually run by the American Red Cross (as part of their Congressional Charter), by faith groups or by the local municipality. Post-disaster, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) may provide financial assistance for rent or launch a Transitional Sheltering Assistance program whereby FEMA covers the cost of lodging at a hotel or motel for impacted people.

Still-developing nations have seen a major influx of people to large urban areas, which is resulting in buildings that are built quickly, without much oversight to ensure adequate building codes and standards. Rapid population growth, along with poorly constructed buildings, can also lead to overcrowding and its related challenges. Poor sanitation, difficulties in accessing food and clean water, as well as the increased potential for a disaster to cause an overwhelming number of injuries and fatalities are all challenges with rapidly increasing urban populations. It also increases the chance for large numbers of people to need shelter in some of the most heavily affected areas after a disaster.

Key Facts

  • The most effective strategies for interim and emergency shelter consider the entire shelter cycle, including the root causes of emergency and interim shelter needs; how people will access shelter; resources and services they will need; and how they will transition into long-term housing. Focusing solely on the provision of shelter can lead to inefficient use of resources and duplication of efforts, especially when the situation leading to the need for shelter could be prevented or mitigated.
  • Those most likely to be affected should be involved in shelter plans—preferably long before a disaster occurs. Participation by local leaders, vulnerable populations and communities is essential for any recovery plan to work. Communities recover as communities, not as individuals.
  • Plans should be designed to meet the needs of the most vulnerable first. Emergency and interim shelter should be designed to meet the needs of those who need the most support. Older adults, people with disabilities and functional needs and women and girls become much more vulnerable when emergency and interim shelter is required.
  • Even in developed nations, private philanthropy plays an essential role in the rebuilding of communities. Government assistance and insurance only go so far in meeting needs, particularly when there have been multiple major disasters, or the affected area is very large.
  • Urban areas need special consideration. In the aftermath of a disaster, there may be more rubble from affected buildings, in addition to damage to roads and other infrastructure. Urban areas may also include a higher percentage of vulnerable or resource-poor populations, with less ability to withstand or recover from disaster on their own.
  • Improved planning and smarter building can act as mitigation. In Bangladesh, for example, a nation heavily impacted by annual floods, communities have worked with nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and others to raise houses above flood levels; establish flood shelters that can accommodate up to 300 families each; build raised-tube wells for clean water; improve warning communications; and keep rescue boatsready. 
  • Much can be learned from past experience, both domestically and internationally. There are many opportunities not only for the study of best practices, but also for working toward implementation of those practices in vulnerable communities worldwide.
  • Emergency and interim shelter is one of nine thematic clusters identified by the United Nations for greater coordination in humanitarian crises. UNHCR shares leadership of the United Nations’ emergency shelter cluster with the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC).

How To Help

  • Do not stop at relief. Support efforts that increase focus on disaster planning in addition to longer-term recovery of communities.
  • Remember the needs of vulnerable populations. Tenuous situations prior to a disaster are only exacerbated during and after an event. Ensure that shelter plans, for example, are appropriate for those with disabilities and help fund communication efforts that spread necessary information to those who might not otherwise receive it.
  • Build capacity of NGOs with long-standing ties in areas of concern. These agencies are more likely to work with local agents and deliver the most efficient, appropriate services and results.
  • Fund collaborative efforts between NGOs, government agencies and the building/engineering communities to develop best practices. The Engineering & Construction Disaster Resource Partnership (DRP), for example, works toward coordinated private sector partnership in response to natural disasters.
  • Post-disaster, support programs that help those affected recover. Funding of microloans for rebuilding and livelihood opportunities in the removal of rubble, etc. help restore community pride and purpose.
  • Fund assessments of areas vulnerable to natural disasters. Consider NGO and government capacity, in addition to past events.
  • Do not forget funding for large-scale debris removal in urban areas. Often overlooked in disaster planning, rubble from damaged infrastructure can stand in the way of efforts to rebuild, unnecessarily extending the need for shelters.
  • Consider and support the development/availability of innovative shelter structures. Over the years, numerous designs have offered lower-cost, more efficient and/or more sustainable options.

What Funders Are Doing

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Emergency Response Services

Overview

Emergency Response Services (sometimes called First Responders) are the public, private and volunteer organizations that respond to incidents that threaten the safety and wellbeing of people in their area. They generally include fire departments, police services and emergency medical services (EMS). Although response systems are common around the world, they are not all the same. The level and effectiveness of emergency response coverage are also not consistent.

A wildland firefighter’s view of the large smoke plume coming from the Cameron Peak Fire during structure protection operations. (Source: South Metro Fire Rescue)

North Americans have grown accustomed to emergency response services having access to helicopters, rescue boats, air ambulances andor waterbombers. However, these are a rarity in many areas outside of Australia, Europe and North America. Emergency response could be a public service, private professional service, entirely or partially volunteer or supported by a nongovernmental organization (i.e., Red Cross or St. John Ambulance) depending upon the jurisdiction.

In most jurisdictions, emergency response services are allowed to operate with warning devices such as lights and sirens that enable them to have priority over road traffic and aerial and water-based emergency response services are given priority through their respective traffic control systems. Most North American services are organized around a municipality or a county, while many systems elsewhere are operated on a national scale. In many countries, emergency response services are far from “just around the corner”; they may be hours or even days away.

Governments around the world are tasking emergency response services to do more with fewer resources. For example, fire departments’ mission to extinguish fires dates back to the Roman Vigiles. In the 21st century, we expect firefighters to provide fire suppression, hazardous materials response, swift water rescue, medical response, automobile extrication, search and rescue and many other roles far beyond putting fires out.  Additionally, EMS agencies have moved far past the “load and go” era where an ambulance was simply a method of getting a patient to the hospital.

Other emergency services usually exist in various forms in every country, based on need. The Coast Guard is generally responsible for emergencies on large bodies of water and provides some law enforcement services in national waters. On lakes and rivers, it is usually local first responders providing these services.

Specialized resources exist in many areas, but these usually have a very narrow scope because of the high level of training and equipment required. The composition and governance of these teams can range from local teams who respond only in their jurisdiction, to regional teams that respond across their country, to national and international teams that respond around the world. Some of these specialized resources can include:

  • Heavy Urban Search and Rescue Team (HUSAR): They can explore damaged or destroyed buildings to rescue people or recover the deceased.
  • Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT): This team can deploy a hospital-like facility including emergency department, operating rooms, acute care wards and intensive care units in areas with damaged or destroyed infrastructure.
  • Incident Management Team (IMT): This team has the experience and training to provide leadership of complex, multi-organization and multi-region incidents that can involve thousands of people from hundreds of agencies.
  • Wildfire Team: There are many types of wildfire teams, ranging from rapid attack smokejumpers who parachute into the middle of a new fire to long-term mop-up units that ensure fires are fully and completely extinguished.
  • Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear and Explosive Team (CBRNE): These specialized teams respond to incidents involving CBRNE materials. Although some CBRNE teams are integrated with very large fire departments, many jurisdictions maintain a regional or federal team as well.
  • Ground Search and Rescue Team: While aerial search and rescue is mostly the responsibility of military, law enforcement and Coast Guard resources, Ground Search and Rescue is often made up of volunteer organizations. Less frequently, Spontaneous and Unaffiliated Volunteers (SUAV) will be enlisted to support a ground search when required.

Key Facts

  • Many places around the world do not have local access to emergency services. Many rural and remote communities must get their emergency services from other communities that can be hours or more away. In some places, the only emergency service of any type is a federal law enforcement office at a regional hub city.
  • Emergency services are often run on a minimal budget using repurposed and salvaged equipment. Even within North America, many small emergency service departments rely on outdated equipment handed down through multiple other services. While large city emergency services can typically afford to replace equipment and vehicles regularly, many services operate as volunteers on budgets of less than $100,000 per year.
  • Local emergency service departments are the first trained people on the scene of a disaster and are sometimes the only people to respond. When wildfires burned across Northern Oklahoma and Southern Kansas in the spring of 2018, there were so many fires burning that departments in the area had to keep their trucks close by and could not help their neighboring communities.
  • Emergency service access is not universal. While most countries have some variation of a three-digit emergency phone number such as 911, 111, 112 or 999, this service relies on appropriate infrastructure. If an area does not have the telecommunications infrastructure including a Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP) where emergency calls can be processed and assigned to the appropriate agency, then they are unable to use this service. There are still some regions of Canada and the U.S., which remain without access to 911 services. Some specialized resources can only be requested through appropriate emergency services’ channels and are not available directly to the public.
  • Many emergency services are working to enhance the resilience in their response areas by providing proactive and reactive (response) services. Fire inspections, smoke alarm distribution, mobile integrated health or community paramedicine and community-based policing initiatives are examples of proactive work by emergency services to reduce the need for emergency response and increase community resiliency.

How to Help

Ideally, state or local municipalities finance emergency services. However, this does not always occur or are adequate funding sources, especially in smaller, rural and tribal communities. These areas often receive second-hand equipment that may be expensive to maintain; first responders often work without full safety protection.

Emergency services support is expensive: a fully-equipped ambulance costs approximately $250,000, and comprehensive training and outfitting a firefighter with appropriate equipment costs roughly $12,500. Although it is not the role of philanthropy to fund equipment and vehicles, there are a few ways philanthropy can help emergency responders.

  • Lend your voice to campaigns for equipment. Advocate for your local fire department or EMS with your municipal and state representatives.
  • Make a low- or no-cost loan to support a capital or equipment campaign. This provides immediate access to safety equipment that jurisdictions can pay over a longer period.
  • Support local emergency services through unrestricted cash donations that support their operating funds or personnel. This is particularly important for volunteer operations. During the Australia bushfires of 2020, many volunteer firefighters were fighting fires but unable to work at their “day job,” leaving their families without necessary resources.
  • Build connections between emergency services. Seek out organizations that connect experienced and well-resourced departments to new or under-resourced departments by providing them with training, equipment and vehicles.
  • Support the development of community-based emergency services. It is important to promote and fund proactive and preventative services as well as emergency response.
  • Address issues of mental health in first responders. Provide grants to organizations that specifically support front-line emergency service workers, especially with financial or psycho-social and emotional health supports.
  • Support organizations that provide anti-bias training for first responders. Identify leaders in the community who work with emergency services to address racism, sexism, transphobia and homophobia.

What Funders Are Doing

The Center for Disaster Philanthropy’s (CDP) Hurricane Harvey Recovery Fund, in partnership with the Rebuild Texas Fund, provided grants to the following organizations in Texas following Hurricane Harvey:

 
Other examples of funding for emergency response services include:

  • Sussex Community Foundation made a $2,566 grant to Sussex Search and Rescue, the primary volunteer resources used by Sussex Police to search and rescue vulnerable people. SusSAR is staffed purely by volunteers, covering the whole of Sussex. Concerning Covid-19, with current U.K. Government guidance, they are classed as first responders. Funding will be for additional PPE, fuel, servicing and other vehicle costs in 2021.
  • StartSmall LLC made an $830,000 grant to Bread of Life in 2020 to purchase and provide emergency supplies to hospitals, police and fire departments, nursing homes and nonprofits to help them battle the coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak.
  • Gulf Coast Community Foundation made a $40,000 donation in 2020 to the Boys & Girls Clubs of Sarasota County to launch its First Responder Program. The initiative provides free child care to local first responders employed by Sarasota County Fire Department, Sarasota County Sheriff’s Office, Sarasota Memorial Hospital and Sarasota Police Department.
  • Austin Community Foundation made a $5,000 grant to the Austin Vietnamese American Medical Professional Society in 2020 to provide medical needs relief to health care professionals giving direct patient care (hospitals, health agencies, medical offices) and first responders through donated hand-made fabric face masks.
  • Golden Leaf Foundation made a $500,000 donation to the County of Hyde to construct a new EMS station on Ocracoke Island after the existing station was flooded by Hurricane Dorian.

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Explosions

Overview

An explosion is a sudden, fast increase in pressure between two different areas that results in the rapid unplanned disassembly of buildings, vehicles and other things in the immediate vicinity.

Port of Beirut a few days after the explosion in August 2020. (Photo: rashid khreiss on Unsplash)

Although an explosion can have many causes, most are related to human activity, such as fires, containment system failures, and intentional explosions, including demolition and terrorism. Whatever the motivation or cause behind the explosion, the consequences and effects remain the same.

When there is a quick increase in pressure in a contained area, it can rapidly exceed the capacity of the container – whether a building, a tank or other container – to adapt to the pressure and safely dissipate it. When this occurs, it begins a rapid unplanned disassembly that we see as an explosion. Some containers, particularly those containing flammable materials such as gasoline, propane, oil and compressed gasses, are designed with relief valves to prevent an explosion. In this situation, the container itself fails safely at or through the relief valve when the pressure difference inside and outside reaches a certain point. This is the reason why rail cars and propane tanks do not generally explode during a fire.

A fire causes an explosion by the transfer of heat. The fire’s radiant heat causes a substance to expand and increases surrounding pressure until the container fails, either through a pressure relief valve or by rapid unplanned disassembly. When a containment system, such as a tank, pipeline or hazardous materials vessel fails, an explosion can happen when two substances mix and have a highly volatile reaction.

For example, when a pipeline fails and the fumes within it are mixed with oxygen, the combined substances become more volatile, allowing a simple spark to ignite an explosion. Or, if a hazardous materials containment system (such as a wall, ventilation process or tank) fails and allows two substances to mix, those substances may react violently, increasing the pressure inside quickly enough to cause an explosion.

An intentional explosion uses a reaction between volatile compounds to create a rapid increase in pressure. Demolition experts often use “plastic” explosives that have been manufactured to strict quality standards and will only react to a specific input, such as an electrical current. Improvised explosive devices (IEDs), like pipe bombs, car bombs and other similar devices, often use re-purposed military munitions and explosives or homemade combinations of volatile substances such as ammonium nitrate and fuel oil.

Key Facts

  • Unsafe storage of agricultural fertilizer is one of the largest causes of explosions. Ammonium nitrate has been used as an agricultural fertilizer for decades, enhancing crop yields and increasing food security. However, since 2013 unsafe storage of ammonium nitrate has been directly tied to three major explosions. That year, a blast at the West Texas Fertilizer Company killed 15 people – mostly firefighters who had responded to the plant’s initial fire. In 2015, a fire at the Port of Tianjin in China spread to a warehouse containing hazardous materials, including 800 tonnes (1.76 million pounds) of ammonium nitrate. The resulting explosion, which was visible from space, killed 173 people – including eight whose bodies were never recovered. The August 2020 explosion at the Port of Beirut (Lebanon) was caused by the explosion of 500 tonnes (1.1 million pounds) of ammonium nitrate.
  • Countries without strict safety standards are at higher risk of explosion-related disasters. Almost any substance can explode when mixed with the appropriate amount of air and heat. Countries without strict safety standards are less likely to have appropriate precautions to prevent dust explosions from grain or wood processing. These explosions can not only kill or injure people working in industrial facilities, they can also destroy those facilities and leave an entire region without an essential source of economic activity.
  • Because most explosions happen as a result of human activity, they can have a disproportionate effect on critical infrastructure and systems. Human activity is the leading cause of non-natural explosions, whether intentional or accidental. Often, this is due to transportation-related incidents and occurs in or near places where critical infrastructure is located. In 2008, a series of explosions at a propane storage facility in Toronto, Ontario, closed down the busiest highway in North America.

How to Help

  • Fund and support advocacy for stronger building and life safety codes. In North America and Europe, there are extensive building and life safety codes that help limit the occurrence of explosions and minimize the damage from them when they happen. Stronger codes will reduce the potential for improper and unsafe storage and transportation of explosive materials.
  • Support the development of sustainable and resilient infrastructure. By necessity, many components of critical infrastructure and systems are located in or adjacent to places where there is a higher risk of explosion. Building infrastructure that is better able to resist the effects of an explosion and has redundancy built into it will help minimize infrastructure outages.
  • Fund research into more resilient building materials and methods. Some of the damage associated with explosions occurs because of the expanding pressure wave. However, much more of the destruction occurs because of shrapnel and debris. Buildings, containers and systems that better resist rapid unplanned disassembly will reduce the amount of damage, injuries and deaths associated with an explosion.
  • Support rebuilding and redevelopment post-explosion. Unfortunately, we cannot prevent all explosions. Funders must be ready to move quickly, like any other disaster, to provide relief and response funding and be prepared to invest in long-term recovery.

What Funders Are Doing

The Center for Disaster Philanthropy (CDP) made two donations to support recovery from the Beirut Explosion in 2020 from our Global Recovery Fund with support from a partner who wishes to remain anonymous.

  • Miyamoto Global Disaster Relief received a $50,000 grant to repair housing units damaged by the devastating explosion. The program will leverage Miyamoto Relief’s engineering expertise to focus on homes of historical or cultural significance that suffered structural damages (instead of buildings that require lighter repairs, such as replacing doors and windows).
  • Cooperative Assistance for Relief Everywhere (CARE) also received a $50,000 grant. CARE will be using cash and vouchers to address food security and livelihood, repairs and rehabilitation to homes with a particular focus on safe shelter and protection for vulnerable individuals and gender-based activities, including counseling.

 
Additionally, The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation provided a $100,000 grant to the American Near East Refugee Aid organization, which facilitated and supplied critical shipments of medical equipment as well as capacity building support to the hospitals and health centers in Beirut.

Other grants related to explosions include:

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Ice, Snow and Extreme Cold

Overview

While it does not affect as many people as its opposite, extreme heat does, extreme cold can be just as deadly, especially in areas that are not accustomed to cold weather.

As with extreme heat, extreme cold has a variable definition depending on the location and acclimatization of the population to those temperatures. For example, people who live in a temperate state such as Florida may find 50 degrees chilly or cold, while those who live in colder states such as Minnesota may find 50 degrees to be comfortable or even warm.

Many people would associate hypothermia as the threat associated with extreme cold. However, freezing temperatures can also pose challenges for infrastructure, including roads, electrical systems and water systems. It can cause infrastructure failures and hazardous traveling conditions.

Both unseasonable and extreme cold spells are caused a Polar Vortex moves out of its usual path as a result of climate change. NOAA describes the phenomenon as follows: “The polar vortex is a large area of low pressure and cold air surrounding the Earth’s North and South poles. … Often during winter in the Northern Hemisphere, the polar vortex will become less stable and expand, sending cold Arctic air southward over the United States with the jet stream.”

Researchers and scientists are finding evidence that climate change – in particular the warming of the Arctic Ocean – is destabilizing historic weather patterns, including both the jet stream and the polar vortex. Unseasonably warm air is pushing into the polar vortex and destabilizing its typical circular pattern. As a result, the polar vortex is pushed down over North America, bringing unusual and historic extreme cold temperatures with it.

Extreme cold can be deadly, particularly for people experiencing homelessness or who are financially unstable and unable to afford to pay utility bills. Extreme cold also brings with it the possibility of power outages, which can also lead to the inability to safely heat homes. Some people have resorted to unsafe practices such as running a generator, gas stove or using a barbecue or fire inside their house, which can lead to fires or carbon monoxide poisoning. Cold weather can also cause aging critical infrastructure and systems such as electrical and water/wastewater systems to fracture and fail.

Key Facts

  • Climate change is directly responsible for the increase in extreme cold. Climate change is causing an increase in both average and extreme temperatures around the world, with a ratio of 1.59 high temperatures records to 1 low temperature records today – compared with 1.09 high temperature records to 1 low temperature records back in the 1950’s. However, as global temperatures rise, traditional weather patterns such as the polar vortext are disrupted. The polar vortex, which has been a known weather phenomenon for several decades, has become weaker and less stable. This means that extremely cold weather can push down out of the Arctic, causing unseasonable temperature extremes and setting new records.
  • Extreme cold is affecting more places than it used to. “Even though the average global temperature is steadily rising, it is still possible to see extremely cold days, though they are becoming increasingly uncommon and the most extreme cold temperatures are becoming very rare. A cold snap that breaks records, while increasingly uncommon, can still occur, as the range of natural variation for local spot temperatures is very large when compared to the length of modern record-keeping. For example, a cold event that qualifies as a once-in-500-year event under the current climate may be colder than any event that was recorded during the prior climate, as modern record keeping often only goes back 100 years (or less) for many locations.” – ClimateSignals.Org
  • Some studies have shown that extreme cold is deadlier than extreme heat. A 2015 study in The Lancet medical journal found that 71% of all deaths analyzed were caused by what the researchers called “non-optimal temperatures”, the vast majority of those – 7.29% were caused by temperatures that were colder than optimal. This same study determined that 4.5% of all deaths in Canada during the study period could be attributed at least in part to cold weather.
  • More attention needs to be paid to extreme cold preparedness. While many cities have hot weather emergency plans that include cooling centers, additional operating hours for pools and recreation centers and other expanded resources, very few cities and jurisdictions have emergency plans for extreme cold and the expected impacts on critical infrastructure and people with disabilities and functional access needs.

How to Help

  • Support climate change mitigation. Several studies have shown that there is a direct connection between human-caused climate change and increased occurrences of extreme cold. Specifically: warming temperatures are disrupting the polar vortex and pushing cold air into non-traditional areas. While the polar vortex may be bringing extreme cold temperatures to one part of the world, the rest of the world is experiencing extremely hot weather. While short-term climate change mitigation is not immediately possible, there are projects that mitigate the long-term effects of climate change. Fund reforestation, renewable energy and reduced reliance on carbon-based transportation to help reduce the rate of climate change and hopefully allow for a decrease in extreme cold emergencies in the future.
  • Consider unconventional funding opportunities. Some projects that could have an outsized impact on extreme cold and climate change may not qualify for traditional funding. Private philanthropy has opportunities to invest in projects like urban forestry, resilient critical infrastructure and systems, unconventional public transit, warming centers and other projects that may make a significant impact on extreme cold events either by mitigating the effects of climate change or by minimizing the impact from cold weather events.
  • Support projects that invest in critical infrastructure and systems. Critical infrastructure and systems – electricity, natural gas and power generation in particular – are key to ensuring the continued operation of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems. These systems are essential to maintaining optimal temperatures during extreme cold, particularly for those who are vulnerable because of age, disability and functional needs, or other conditions.
  • Fund local initiatives that provide accessible warming centers during cold emergencies. The need for warming centers can be more necessary and urgent than the need for cooling centers. While acute medical emergencies related to heat usually take an extended exposure to high temperatures, medical emergencies related to cold can develop relatively quickly, especially when other critical infrastructure and systems such as electricity, natural gas and heating have also been affected by the weather. The provision of warming centers alone is not sufficient; access to those centers is of key importance. People experiencing homelessness, who are living in poverty or who have disabilities and functional needs may require additional support in the form of free transportation or other services to be able to access warming centers. Other people may need assistance with transportation to warming centers, especially if there is heavy snowfall, freezing rain or other severe weather happening at the same time.
  • Look for opportunities to support people with disabilities and functional access needs and other vulnerable populations. Whether it is through the provision of financial support for warming centers, emergency backup generators or other supports, investments in people with disabilities and functional needs and other vulnerable populations will have a larger impact than investments in the general population.

What Funders Are Doing

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Extreme Heat

Overview

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Global warming refers to the recent and ongoing rise in global average temperature near Earth’s surface. It is caused mostly by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Global warming is causing climate patterns to change. However, global warming itself represents only one aspect of climate change.”

Credit: Graeme Maclean; CC BY 2.0

While the average temperature continues to increase at a moderate pace, climate change has caused more frequent extreme weather events, particularly extreme heat. Daily high temperature records have been broken approximately twice as often as daily low temperature records.

The specific definition of extreme heat varies depending on the jurisdiction, but Ready.gov describes extreme heat as “a long period (2 to 3 days) of high heat and humidity with temperatures above 90 degrees.” Extreme heat events are on the rise in North America and around the world, with devastating consequences for many people, especially those who are already vulnerable because of age, medical conditions or even socio-economic conditions. Additionally, heat waves and droughts are increasing in severity and frequency because of climate change. These increases are also causing cascading increases to other disasters such as wildfires, flooding and extreme weather like tornadoes and hurricanes.

Globally, extreme heat continues to kill increasing numbers of people, particularly in temperate climates that do not have the infrastructure to support extreme heat. For example, buildings without air conditioning will usually retain heat even as exterior temperatures decrease, subjecting the occupants to elevated temperatures for a longer amount of time. This means that the temperature inside a building is more relevant to the extreme heat threat than the temperature outside. Heavily populated and built-up regions where concrete and asphalt tend to retain heat for long periods of time are vulnerable to the heat island effect. Both of these infrastructure challenges lead to higher levels of morbidity and mortality due to extreme heat.

Funding directed towards climate change mitigation will help decrease the incidents of extreme heat around the world. In the meantime, extreme heat will continue to be an increasing issue around the world as temperatures increase as a result of global warming. These trends cannot be explained by natural variation alone. According to computer models, human activity is a big influence. While the long-term effects of the COVID-19 shutdown on climate change are still being studied, the short-term effects have been drastic with significant reductions in pollutants – specifically climate change causing carbon dioxide (CO2). Long-term research will show definitive information about the connection between human activity and climate change, but COVID-19 has shown a direct connection between human activity and CO2 emissions.

The painful results of extreme heat are being felt by America’s farmers and anyone who wants to buy local produce. Droughts are occurring more frequently, and increased heat is leading to more water vapor in the atmosphere which leads to heavier rainfall. This combination of droughts and severe rain is leading to decreased crop yields from both drought damage and soil loss due to erosion. If these trends continue, food security will weaken and more people will migrate in search of food and potable water. Preventing or mitigating the effects of extreme heat will increase resilience towards all types of disasters and emergencies by securing the food supply, allowing people to be more resilient in their homes and reducing the risk of the long-term effects of extreme heat.

Key Facts

  • The number of extreme heat days across the US continues to increase and is expected to reach 150+ days in some locations by 2050. The United States Global Change Research Program says “The average heat wave season across 50 major cities is 47 days longer than it was in the 1960s.” An article from National Geographic shows that temperate cities such as St. Louis could see the number of extreme heat days in a year double to more than 90.
  • Indoor temperatures are directly related to increased mortality during heatwaves. While outdoor temperatures often ease during the evening and overnight hours, extreme heat can be retained inside older buildings and those without air conditioning. As a result, people inside those buildings don’t experience a reprieve from the extreme temperatures, increasing their risk of death. People with disabilities and functional needs, along with those who do not have easy transportation options are also at increased risk because they cannot access cooling centers and other resources.
  • Urban areas are at higher risk because of the heat island effect. The EPA says that urban areas of a million people can be 1.8 to 5.4 degrees warmer than surrounding areas. Urban heat islands are constructed of dense materials like stone and concrete that retain heat overnight. With their high population density, these urban areas can quickly be overwhelmed by the number of people needing medical assistance during a heat wave.

How to Help

  • Support climate change mitigation. The EPA states that there is a direct connection between human-caused climate change and increased occurrences of extreme heat. While short-term climate change mitigation is not immediately possible, there are projects that mitigate the long-term effects of climate change. Fund reforestation, renewable energy and reduced reliance on carbon-based transportation to help reduce the rate of climate change and hopefully allow for a decrease in extreme heat emergencies in the future.
  • Consider unconventional funding opportunities. Some projects that could have an outsized impact on extreme heat and climate change may not qualify for traditional funding. Private philanthropy has opportunities to invest in projects like urban forestry, community orchards and gardens, unconventional public transit, cooling centers, and other projects that may make a significant impact on extreme heat events.
  • Support projects that invest in Critical Infrastructure and Systems. Critical infrastructure and systems – electricity and power generation in particular – are key to ensuring the continued operation of Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems. These systems are essential to reducing heat stress, particularly for those who are vulnerable because of age, disability and functional needs, or other conditions.
  • Fund local initiatives that provide accessible cooling centers during heat emergencies. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention states that: “Access to air conditioning can prevent heat-related morbidity and mortality.” The provision of cooling centers alone is not, access to the centers is of key importance. People experiencing homelessness, who are living in poverty, or who have disabilities and functional needs may require additional support in the form of free transportation or other services to be able to access cooling centers.
  • Look for opportunities to support people with disabilities and functional needs and other vulnerable populations.Whether it is through the provision of low- or no-cost air conditioning units, accessible transportation to cooling centers, or other supports, investments in people with disabilities and functional needs and other vulnerable populations will have a larger impact than investments in the general population.

What Funders Are Doing

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FEMA

Overview

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is the government agency charged with supporting U.S. citizens, residents and first responders “to ensure that as a nation we work together to build, sustain, and improve our capability to prepare for, protect against, respond to, recover from, and mitigate all hazards.”

A FEMA Community Relations representative walks through a damaged neighborhood. (Source: Jocelyn Augustino/FEMA)

Prior to a disaster, FEMA provides preparedness programs designed to mitigate or eliminate loss when disasters do occur. This includes hazard mitigation programs to support individuals or government to reduce dangers or eliminate long-term risk to people and property stemming from disasters. It also supports the National Flood Insurance Program to support homeowners and tenants who risk losing property after a flood.

In the wake of a disaster, FEMA plays a critical role in meeting the needs of affected populations in the United States. FEMA staff conducts damage assessments, supports local emergency management operations and establishes voluntary liaisons to support the faith, philanthropic and nonprofit communities. FEMA establishes PODs (Points of Distribution) in conjunction with the National Guard to distribute water and tarps. They also provide Disaster Recovery Centers (DRC) to enable people to access information and financial assistance.

In addition, FEMA coordinates the disaster-related work of other U.S. governmental agencies and departments. FEMA’s Emergency Support Functions (ESFs) provide a structure to oversee response in disasters. ESF 6, for example, includes “Mass Care, Emergency Assistance, Temporary Housing, and Human Services  – coordinates and provides life-sustaining resources, essential services, and statutory programs when the needs of disaster survivors exceed local, state, tribal, territorial, and insular area government capabilities.” Many nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) responding in the immediate aftermath of a disaster are supporting ESF 6 activities.

FEMA also provides three types of financial or programmatic grants to assist communities:

  1. Hazard Mitigation Assistance
  2. Public Assistance Program
  3. Individual Assistance Program

Hazard Mitigation Assistance (HMA)
There are three types of grants provided through the HMA – Pre-Disaster Mitigation, Flood Mitigation Assistance and Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP). The Hazard Mitigation Grant Program defines hazard mitigation measures as “any sustainable action taken to reduce or eliminate long-term risk to people and property from future disasters. The HMGP supports cost-effective post-disaster projects and is the longest running mitigation program among FEMA’s three grant programs. Studies have shown that every $1 spent equals $4 of future damages mitigated.”

Public Assistance Program
If FEMA declares that a disaster meets the minimum threshold for damages, they can provide assistance to individuals or government. FEMA’s Public Assistance (PA) program supports, “communities’ recovery from major disasters by providing them with grant assistance for debris removal, life-saving emergency protective measures, and restoring public infrastructure. Local governments, states, tribes, territories and certain private nonprofit organizations are eligible to apply. Public Assistance is FEMA’s largest grant program. Since 2017, FEMA gave over five billion dollars through PA grants to help communities clear debris and rebuild roads, schools, libraries, and other public facilities.” PA is provided in several areas:

Emergency Work

A) Debris Removal
B) Emergency Protective Measures

Permanent Work

C) Road Systems and Bridges
D) Water Control Facilities
E) Buildings, Contents and Equipment
F) Utilities
G) Parks, Recreational and Other Facilities

Categories A and B are the most common after a disaster.

Individual Assistance Program
FEMA also provides assistance through its Individual Assistance Program, primarily through its Individual and Household Program (IHP). Through the IHP, FEMA “provides financial assistance and direct services to eligible individuals and households who have uninsured or underinsured necessary expenses and serious needs. IHP Assistance is not a substitute for insurance and cannot compensate for all losses caused by a disaster; it is intended to meet basic needs and supplement disaster recovery efforts.”

IHP also includes housing assistance including the TSA (Temporary Shelter Assistance) program which supports individuals’ housing in motels after shelters close and before their home is ready. Other Needs Assistance (ONA) includes expenses related to healthcare, childcare, disabilities, loss of life, vehicle replacement and replacement of furniture or appliances. Individuals who do not qualify for a FEMA grant can access assistance through the U.S. Small Business Administration Disaster Assistance Program which provides loans to assist with repairs and losses for both homes and businesses.

In addition to the IHP, Individual Assistance includes Disaster Unemployment Assistance, Disaster Legal Services, Crisis Counseling Assistance and Training Programs and Disaster Case Management Program (DCMP).

Key Facts

  • FEMA is not that old, but disaster support is. FEMA was created by President Jimmy Carter on Apr. 1, 1979 to bring together nearly two centuries of disaster recovery programming and financing that were in existence.
  • FEMA works only at the request of the state government or a federally-recognized Indian tribal government. The governor of an affected state or tribal chief executive must make a formal application for help, either for an emergency or major disaster.  Assistance may be requested for disaster relief for individuals, for the restoration of public systems and facilities or for matching mitigation funds to reduce the area’s future vulnerability.
  • FEMA does not cover the full financial impact of a disaster. Contrary to what many people believe, FEMA has a limit in its assistance and most people get relatively small amounts. The FEMA Max Grant during Hurricane Harvey in 2017 was $33,300; most people received $3,000 to 4,000 in assistance.
  • Inclusive planning is needed. Though disaster preparedness efforts are essential in mitigating damage, too often the focus is on the able-bodied, teaching them what to do to be “ready.” Assistance also must be given to nongovernmental agencies that work with marginalized populations to ensure, for example, those who would need portable oxygen in the case of an incident are identified and cared for, or the number of people in a certain area that might need public transportation is accurately known.

How to Help

Private dollars are more agile than public ones with disaster relief. As such, donors can complement FEMA efforts through the following strategies:

  • Support inclusive planning efforts. Offer grants, for example, for disaster-preparedness training and programs that specifically incorporate plans for vulnerable populations.
  • Build the capacity of intermediary agencies such as healthcare providers and food banks that already work with vulnerable populations. Shoring up their ability to meet needs before a disaster will help reduce exacerbation of those needs when disaster strikes.
  • Be a connector. Create opportunities for private and public representatives to form relationships to share resources, ideas, skills and capacities before a disaster hits.
  • Provide post-disaster expedited loans and grants for small businesses. Currently, federal loans to help small businesses recover from disasters are capped at $2 million.  That may not be enough — and it may take too long to arrive in order to be most effective in stimulating recovery.
  • Fund public awareness and other campaigns. Foster conversations at the community level about available services, limitations and preparedness to overcome distrust of government assistance.
  • Support the gap in funding between FEMA’s grant and people’s needs. This is particularly important for people who do not have home or flood insurance.

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