Overview

Striking without warning, earthquakes often are among the most devastating natural disasters. In the first decade of the 21^st century alone earthquakes, accounted for 60 percent of deaths from natural disasters, according to the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). One of the deadliest earthquakes hit in 2010, when more than 225,000 people were killed as the result of a particularly harrowing earthquake in Haiti.

Caused by the movement of plates along fault lines on the earth’s surface, earthquakes often leave a monumental path of instant death and destruction. In some cases, however, the quake is only the beginning of the trouble, such as the tsunami and nuclear meltdown that followed the massive 2011 earthquake in Japan. More recently, a pair of tremblors struck southern and central Mexico eleven days apart in September 2017, killing more than 300 and toppling thousands of homes and businesses.  Occurring on the 32^nd anniversary of the 1985 Mexico City earthquake that killed an estimated 10,000 people, a commemoration and drill had been held just hours before in the city.

In addition to Mexico City, some of the world’s most populous cities—Tokyo, New York, Mumbai, Delhi, Shanghai, Kolkata and Jakarta—lie on fault lines.

Quakes are measured on a Richter scale of 1.0 to 10.0, gauging the intensity of shocks. Each year, some 900,000 quakes with a 2.0 or smaller affect the world; while those are large enough to be measured by seismographs, they are not felt by most. Earthquakes of 7.0 or higher, which cause serious damage, occur at a rate of about 100 per year. Those higher than 8.0 on the Richter scale, able to completely destroy a city, occur roughly every five or 10 years.

In the United States, three significant fault lines have the potential for tremendous damage. The San Andreas Fault, for one, runs the length of California. While the last mega-quake was in 1906, the state has been beset by large earthquakes on a frequent basis. Consequently, the state has somewhat stringent building codes to withstand the shaking.

Two other areas of the country are not quite as prepared. The Cascadia Subduction Zone in the Pacific Northwest stretches from Seattle to Northern California and experiences a giant quake every 300-600 years; the last was in 1700 according to the U.S. Geological Survey. The New Madrid Seismic Zone links Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri and Mississippi. Three earthquakes in excess of 8.0 occurred there in 1811 and 1812; scientists say those quakes likely were larger than the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, though modern measurements did not exist then. Both faults have a significant likelihood of triggering a major earthquake in the next half century.

Internationally, the Pacific Ring of Fire is home to 90 percent of the world’s earthquakes and 75 percent of the world’s active volcanoes. According to National Geographic, “It is shaped more like a 40,000-kilometer (25,000-mile) horseshoe. A string of 452 volcanoes stretches from “the southern tip of South America, up along the coast of North America, across the Bering Strait, down through Japan, and into New Zealand. Several active and dormant volcanoes in Antarctica, however, ‘close’ the ring.” There have been several substantial earthquakes in this area including the May 22, 1960 Valdivia earthquake which, at 9.5 on the Richter scale, is the largest earthquake ever recorded.

Key Facts

• In the immediate aftermath of an earthquake, providing relief is difficult—if not impossible. Roads, bridges and airports are disabled. Communications systems are challenged. Emergency aid that can arrive often is focused on search-and-rescue operations. Consequently, many affected find they must provide for their own basic needs for the first few days.
• The aftermath of an earthquake may bring disease, especially in resource-poor countries.In Haiti, a post-earthquake outbreak of cholera killed more than 7,000. The number is small compared to the loss of life from the earthquake itself, but the cholera outbreak stretched for more than a year and sickened more than 520,000. Haiti’s poor water system was partially blamed for the spread of disease.
• Countries that strengthen building codes often reduce death and destruction. According to one study, the damage in Haiti was twice that of other 7.0 earthquakes. Poor-quality concrete, a building staple, was blamed for many building failures. A 2008 earthquake in China brought investigations into shoddy material used in school buildings after 90,000 died. On the other end of the spectrum is Chile, which has used concrete walls as a brace for its buildings due to the frequency of quakes there. When an 8.8 magnitude quake struck in 2010, fewer than 1,000 people died.
• In the United States, earthquakes are not isolated to one region of the country. According to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 45 states and territories are at moderate to high risk of earthquakes. Twenty-six urban centers are also at risk. In 2011, an earthquake centered in Virginia was felt from North Carolina to New York and caused damage to federal monuments in Washington, D.C.
• Earthquake recovery takes years, though interest wanes. In 2012, the United Nations sought $230 million to continue aiding Haitians. Though 500,000 Haitians lived in tents two years after the quake, only 19 percent of the aid sought by the U.N. had been received.

How To Help

• Fund innovative building programs and education, particularly in resource-poor countries. Poorly constructed buildings collapse in earthquakes; falling debris is the greatest cause of death. Some experiments with straw houses and bamboo are underway but overcoming local superstitions about alternative building materials is necessary.
• Transfer knowledge from prepared communities to those at risk. Cities and countries that experience the most frequent smaller earthquakes often are extremely well-prepared while others that are due for a major earthquake may not be.
• Invest in water system initiatives. Vital services are important to stop the spread of disease. Yet in an earthquake, infrastructure often is damaged. Alternative water supplies can be vital to stopping disease. Both small-scale water supplies—for rural areas—and large systems for urban centers are needed.

What Funders Are Doing

• The Center for Disaster Philanthropy received $300,000 in donations to its Mexico Earthquake Recovery Fund. Four organizations were funded:

– Mercy Corps received $150,000 to support economic recovery and growth of small businesses affected by the earthquake.

– Fundación Hogares was awarded $74,819 to support local economic and neighborhood recovery in five specific neighborhoods in the Jujutla municipality of Mexico.

– Habitat for Humanity Mexico received $95,183 to support home rebuild projects for 178 families in Puebla who are operating home-based businesses.

– Fondo Acción Solidaria (FASOL) was awarded $19,000 for the creation of a cultural center that allows the community to benefit from meeting space, workshop implementation and cooperatively organized community space.

• In 2018, the Lenore and Charles Hale Fund at the Seattle Foundation, awarded a grant to Centro de Apoyo al Movimiento Popular Oaxaqueño in Juarez, Mexico to provide consulting, training and technical support to rebuild communities in Oaxaca affected by the recent earthquakes.
• In 2012, the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation awarded UC Santa Cruz, Department of Ocean Science, School of Earth and Marine Science a grant of $757,876 to study the fault that caused the March 2011 earthquake in Japan. The grant enabled participation in the international rapid-response project, Japan Trench Fast Drilling Project, which has established the first- ever underwater earthquake observatory by deep-water drilling at the site of the March 2011 Tohoku megathrust earthquake.
• The W.M. Keck Foundation provided a $1 million grant to scientists at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute to build and install an observatory at the expected rupture zone of the Cascadia fault.
• The Skoll Foundation has devoted $1.25 million to support Build Change in its pursuit of training homeowners, local construction workers, governments and nongovernmental organizations on retrofitting and rebuilding safely in developing countries vulnerable to natural disasters like earthquakes.

Learn More

• USGS Earthquakes
• USGS Earthquakes Map
• Preparedness Made a Difference in Japan
• A Primer on Earthquake Risks in the U.S. and Around the World
• Great Shakeout Drills

 
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Overview

An explosion is a sudden, fast increase in pressure between two different areas that results in the rapid unplanned disassembly of buildings, vehicles and other things in the immediate vicinity.

Although an explosion can have many causes, most are related to human activity, such as fires, containment system failures, and intentional explosions, including demolition and terrorism. Whatever the motivation or cause behind the explosion, the consequences and effects remain the same.

When there is a quick increase in pressure in a contained area, it can rapidly exceed the capacity of the container – whether a building, a tank or other container – to adapt to the pressure and safely dissipate it. When this occurs, it begins a rapid unplanned disassembly that we see as an explosion. Some containers, particularly those containing flammable materials such as gasoline, propane, oil and compressed gasses, are designed with relief valves to prevent an explosion. In this situation, the container itself fails safely at or through the relief valve when the pressure difference inside and outside reaches a certain point. This is the reason why rail cars and propane tanks do not generally explode during a fire.

A fire causes an explosion by the transfer of heat. The fire’s radiant heat causes a substance to expand and increases surrounding pressure until the container fails, either through a pressure relief valve or by rapid unplanned disassembly. When a containment system, such as a tank, pipeline or hazardous materials vessel fails, an explosion can happen when two substances mix and have a highly volatile reaction.

For example, when a pipeline fails and the fumes within it are mixed with oxygen, the combined substances become more volatile, allowing a simple spark to ignite an explosion. Or, if a hazardous materials containment system (such as a wall, ventilation process or tank) fails and allows two substances to mix, those substances may react violently, increasing the pressure inside quickly enough to cause an explosion.

An intentional explosion uses a reaction between volatile compounds to create a rapid increase in pressure. Demolition experts often use “plastic” explosives that have been manufactured to strict quality standards and will only react to a specific input, such as an electrical current. Improvised explosive devices (IEDs), like pipe bombs, car bombs and other similar devices, often use re-purposed military munitions and explosives or homemade combinations of volatile substances such as ammonium nitrate and fuel oil.

Key Facts

• Unsafe storage of agricultural fertilizer is one of the largest causes of explosions. Ammonium nitrate has been used as an agricultural fertilizer for decades, enhancing crop yields and increasing food security. However, since 2013 unsafe storage of ammonium nitrate has been directly tied to three major explosions. That year, a blast at the West Texas Fertilizer Company killed 15 people – mostly firefighters who had responded to the plant’s initial fire. In 2015, a fire at the Port of Tianjin in China spread to a warehouse containing hazardous materials, including 800 tonnes (1.76 million pounds) of ammonium nitrate. The resulting explosion, which was visible from space, killed 173 people – including eight whose bodies were never recovered. The August 2020 explosion at the Port of Beirut (Lebanon) was caused by the explosion of 500 tonnes (1.1 million pounds) of ammonium nitrate.
• Countries without strict safety standards are at higher risk of explosion-related disasters. Almost any substance can explode when mixed with the appropriate amount of air and heat. Countries without strict safety standards are less likely to have appropriate precautions to prevent dust explosions from grain or wood processing. These explosions can not only kill or injure people working in industrial facilities, they can also destroy those facilities and leave an entire region without an essential source of economic activity.
• Because most explosions happen as a result of human activity, they can have a disproportionate effect on critical infrastructure and systems. Human activity is the leading cause of non-natural explosions, whether intentional or accidental. Often, this is due to transportation-related incidents and occurs in or near places where critical infrastructure is located. In 2008, a series of explosions at a propane storage facility in Toronto, Ontario, closed down the busiest highway in North America.

How to Help

• Fund and support advocacy for stronger building and life safety codes. In North America and Europe, there are extensive building and life safety codes that help limit the occurrence of explosions and minimize the damage from them when they happen. Stronger codes will reduce the potential for improper and unsafe storage and transportation of explosive materials.
• Support the development of sustainable and resilient infrastructure. By necessity, many components of critical infrastructure and systems are located in or adjacent to places where there is a higher risk of explosion. Building infrastructure that is better able to resist the effects of an explosion and has redundancy built into it will help minimize infrastructure outages.
• Fund research into more resilient building materials and methods. Some of the damage associated with explosions occurs because of the expanding pressure wave. However, much more of the destruction occurs because of shrapnel and debris. Buildings, containers and systems that better resist rapid unplanned disassembly will reduce the amount of damage, injuries and deaths associated with an explosion.
• Support rebuilding and redevelopment post-explosion. Unfortunately, we cannot prevent all explosions. Funders must be ready to move quickly, like any other disaster, to provide relief and response funding and be prepared to invest in long-term recovery.

What Funders Are Doing

The Center for Disaster Philanthropy (CDP) made two donations to support recovery from the Beirut Explosion in 2020 from our Global Recovery Fund with support from a partner who wishes to remain anonymous.

• Miyamoto Global Disaster Relief received a $50,000 grant to repair housing units damaged by the devastating explosion. The program will leverage Miyamoto Relief’s engineering expertise to focus on homes of historical or cultural significance that suffered structural damages (instead of buildings that require lighter repairs, such as replacing doors and windows).
• Cooperative Assistance for Relief Everywhere (CARE) also received a $50,000 grant. CARE will be using cash and vouchers to address food security and livelihood, repairs and rehabilitation to homes with a particular focus on safe shelter and protection for vulnerable individuals and gender-based activities, including counseling.

 
Additionally, The Charles Stewart Mott Foundation provided a $100,000 grant to the American Near East Refugee Aid organization, which facilitated and supplied critical shipments of medical equipment as well as capacity building support to the hospitals and health centers in Beirut.

Other grants related to explosions include:

• Earth Justice awarded $85,000 to Coming Clean in 2019 to support work in response to the KMCO Chemical Plant explosion in Cosby, Texas.
• The New England Regional Council of Carpenters United Brotherhood 4064 Local donated $5,000 to the City of Lawrence, Massachusetts, to support people who had been affected by a series of gas explosions in 2018.

Learn More

• CDP Disaster Profile: Beirut Explosion
• CDP Issue Insight: Critical Infrastructure and Systems
• CDP Issue Insight: Emergency Response Services
• Ready.Gov: Explosions
• Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety: Combustible Dust

 
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Overview

While it does not affect as many people as its opposite, extreme heat does, extreme cold can be just as deadly, especially in areas that are not accustomed to cold weather.

As with extreme heat, extreme cold has a variable definition depending on the location and acclimatization of the population to those temperatures. For example, people who live in a temperate state such as Florida may find 50 degrees chilly or cold, while those who live in colder states such as Minnesota may find 50 degrees to be comfortable or even warm.

Many people would associate hypothermia as the threat associated with extreme cold. However, freezing temperatures can also pose challenges for infrastructure, including roads, electrical systems and water systems. It can cause infrastructure failures and hazardous traveling conditions.

Both unseasonable and extreme cold spells are caused a Polar Vortex moves out of its usual path as a result of climate change. NOAA describes the phenomenon as follows: “The polar vortex is a large area of low pressure and cold air surrounding the Earth’s North and South poles. … Often during winter in the Northern Hemisphere, the polar vortex will become less stable and expand, sending cold Arctic air southward over the United States with the jet stream.”

Researchers and scientists are finding evidence that climate change – in particular the warming of the Arctic Ocean – is destabilizing historic weather patterns, including both the jet stream and the polar vortex. Unseasonably warm air is pushing into the polar vortex and destabilizing its typical circular pattern. As a result, the polar vortex is pushed down over North America, bringing unusual and historic extreme cold temperatures with it.

Extreme cold can be deadly, particularly for people experiencing homelessness or who are financially unstable and unable to afford to pay utility bills. Extreme cold also brings with it the possibility of power outages, which can also lead to the inability to safely heat homes. Some people have resorted to unsafe practices such as running a generator, gas stove or using a barbecue or fire inside their house, which can lead to fires or carbon monoxide poisoning. Cold weather can also cause aging critical infrastructure and systems such as electrical and water/wastewater systems to fracture and fail.

Key Facts

• Climate change is directly responsible for the increase in extreme cold. Climate change is causing an increase in both average and extreme temperatures around the world, with a ratio of 1.59 high temperatures records to 1 low temperature records today – compared with 1.09 high temperature records to 1 low temperature records back in the 1950’s. However, as global temperatures rise, traditional weather patterns such as the polar vortext are disrupted. The polar vortex, which has been a known weather phenomenon for several decades, has become weaker and less stable. This means that extremely cold weather can push down out of the Arctic, causing unseasonable temperature extremes and setting new records.
• Extreme cold is affecting more places than it used to. “Even though the average global temperature is steadily rising, it is still possible to see extremely cold days, though they are becoming increasingly uncommon and the most extreme cold temperatures are becoming very rare. A cold snap that breaks records, while increasingly uncommon, can still occur, as the range of natural variation for local spot temperatures is very large when compared to the length of modern record-keeping. For example, a cold event that qualifies as a once-in-500-year event under the current climate may be colder than any event that was recorded during the prior climate, as modern record keeping often only goes back 100 years (or less) for many locations.” – ClimateSignals.Org
• Some studies have shown that extreme cold is deadlier than extreme heat. A 2015 study in The Lancet medical journal found that 71% of all deaths analyzed were caused by what the researchers called “non-optimal temperatures”, the vast majority of those – 7.29% were caused by temperatures that were colder than optimal. This same study determined that 4.5% of all deaths in Canada during the study period could be attributed at least in part to cold weather.
• More attention needs to be paid to extreme cold preparedness. While many cities have hot weather emergency plans that include cooling centers, additional operating hours for pools and recreation centers and other expanded resources, very few cities and jurisdictions have emergency plans for extreme cold and the expected impacts on critical infrastructure and people with disabilities and functional access needs.

How to Help

• Support climate change mitigation. Several studies have shown that there is a direct connection between human-caused climate change and increased occurrences of extreme cold. Specifically: warming temperatures are disrupting the polar vortex and pushing cold air into non-traditional areas. While the polar vortex may be bringing extreme cold temperatures to one part of the world, the rest of the world is experiencing extremely hot weather. While short-term climate change mitigation is not immediately possible, there are projects that mitigate the long-term effects of climate change. Fund reforestation, renewable energy and reduced reliance on carbon-based transportation to help reduce the rate of climate change and hopefully allow for a decrease in extreme cold emergencies in the future.
• Consider unconventional funding opportunities. Some projects that could have an outsized impact on extreme cold and climate change may not qualify for traditional funding. Private philanthropy has opportunities to invest in projects like urban forestry, resilient critical infrastructure and systems, unconventional public transit, warming centers and other projects that may make a significant impact on extreme cold events either by mitigating the effects of climate change or by minimizing the impact from cold weather events.
• Support projects that invest in critical infrastructure and systems. Critical infrastructure and systems – electricity, natural gas and power generation in particular – are key to ensuring the continued operation of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems. These systems are essential to maintaining optimal temperatures during extreme cold, particularly for those who are vulnerable because of age, disability and functional needs, or other conditions.
• Fund local initiatives that provide accessible warming centers during cold emergencies. The need for warming centers can be more necessary and urgent than the need for cooling centers. While acute medical emergencies related to heat usually take an extended exposure to high temperatures, medical emergencies related to cold can develop relatively quickly, especially when other critical infrastructure and systems such as electricity, natural gas and heating have also been affected by the weather. The provision of warming centers alone is not sufficient; access to those centers is of key importance. People experiencing homelessness, who are living in poverty or who have disabilities and functional needs may require additional support in the form of free transportation or other services to be able to access warming centers. Other people may need assistance with transportation to warming centers, especially if there is heavy snowfall, freezing rain or other severe weather happening at the same time.
• Look for opportunities to support people with disabilities and functional access needs and other vulnerable populations. Whether it is through the provision of financial support for warming centers, emergency backup generators or other supports, investments in people with disabilities and functional needs and other vulnerable populations will have a larger impact than investments in the general population.

What Funders Are Doing

• In 2018, the Lord Mayor’s Charitable Foundation awarded a $111,371 grant to the University of Technology Sydney to study the impact of hot and cold weather on vulnerable people living in Victoria state – specifically the impact on mortality and health care service use.
• The Boston Foundation Inc. awarded $7,500 to All Hands Volunteers, Inc. (now known as All Hands and Hearts) to help people who were impacted by the record-setting cold and snow in 2015.
• The Community Foundation of Middle Tennessee gave Needlink Nashville $4,000 in 2015 to provide assistance with electric and natural gas bills to 30 households during extreme heat or cold.

Learn More

• CNN: Here’s Your Answer when Someone Asks ‘How Can It be So Cold if There’s Global Warming?’
• Scientific American: How Extreme Weather Threatens People with Disabilities
• US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Preparing for a Winter Storm
• American Red Cross: Winter Storm Safety
• FEMA: Winter Storm Playbook
• National Weather Service: Stay Safe in the Extreme Cold
• Government of Canada: Extreme Cold
• CDP Issue Insight: Older Individuals
• CDP Issue Insight: People with Disabilities
• CDP Issue Insight: Climate Change
• CDP Issue Insight: Critical Infrastructure and Systems

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Overview

According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Global warming refers to the recent and ongoing rise in global average temperature near Earth’s surface. It is caused mostly by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Global warming is causing climate patterns to change. However, global warming itself represents only one aspect of climate change.”

While the average temperature continues to increase at a moderate pace, climate change has caused more frequent extreme weather events, particularly extreme heat. Daily high temperature records have been broken approximately twice as often as daily low temperature records.

The specific definition of extreme heat varies depending on the jurisdiction, but Ready.gov describes extreme heat as “a long period (2 to 3 days) of high heat and humidity with temperatures above 90 degrees.” Extreme heat events are on the rise in North America and around the world, with devastating consequences for many people, especially those who are already vulnerable because of age, medical conditions or even socio-economic conditions. Additionally, heat waves and droughts are increasing in severity and frequency because of climate change. These increases are also causing cascading increases to other disasters such as wildfires, flooding and extreme weather like tornadoes and hurricanes.

Globally, extreme heat continues to kill increasing numbers of people, particularly in temperate climates that do not have the infrastructure to support extreme heat. For example, buildings without air conditioning will usually retain heat even as exterior temperatures decrease, subjecting the occupants to elevated temperatures for a longer amount of time. This means that the temperature inside a building is more relevant to the extreme heat threat than the temperature outside. Heavily populated and built-up regions where concrete and asphalt tend to retain heat for long periods of time are vulnerable to the heat island effect. Both of these infrastructure challenges lead to higher levels of morbidity and mortality due to extreme heat.

Funding directed towards climate change mitigation will help decrease the incidents of extreme heat around the world. In the meantime, extreme heat will continue to be an increasing issue around the world as temperatures increase as a result of global warming. These trends cannot be explained by natural variation alone. According to computer models, human activity is a big influence. While the long-term effects of the COVID-19 shutdown on climate change are still being studied, the short-term effects have been drastic with significant reductions in pollutants – specifically climate change causing carbon dioxide (CO2). Long-term research will show definitive information about the connection between human activity and climate change, but COVID-19 has shown a direct connection between human activity and CO2 emissions.

The painful results of extreme heat are being felt by America’s farmers and anyone who wants to buy local produce. Droughts are occurring more frequently, and increased heat is leading to more water vapor in the atmosphere which leads to heavier rainfall. This combination of droughts and severe rain is leading to decreased crop yields from both drought damage and soil loss due to erosion. If these trends continue, food security will weaken and more people will migrate in search of food and potable water. Preventing or mitigating the effects of extreme heat will increase resilience towards all types of disasters and emergencies by securing the food supply, allowing people to be more resilient in their homes and reducing the risk of the long-term effects of extreme heat.

Key Facts

• The number of extreme heat days across the US continues to increase and is expected to reach 150+ days in some locations by 2050. The United States Global Change Research Program says “The average heat wave season across 50 major cities is 47 days longer than it was in the 1960s.” An article from National Geographic shows that temperate cities such as St. Louis could see the number of extreme heat days in a year double to more than 90.
• Indoor temperatures are directly related to increased mortality during heatwaves. While outdoor temperatures often ease during the evening and overnight hours, extreme heat can be retained inside older buildings and those without air conditioning. As a result, people inside those buildings don’t experience a reprieve from the extreme temperatures, increasing their risk of death. People with disabilities and functional needs, along with those who do not have easy transportation options are also at increased risk because they cannot access cooling centers and other resources.
• Urban areas are at higher risk because of the heat island effect. The EPA says that urban areas of a million people can be 1.8 to 5.4 degrees warmer than surrounding areas. Urban heat islands are constructed of dense materials like stone and concrete that retain heat overnight. With their high population density, these urban areas can quickly be overwhelmed by the number of people needing medical assistance during a heat wave.

How to Help

• Support climate change mitigation. The EPA states that there is a direct connection between human-caused climate change and increased occurrences of extreme heat. While short-term climate change mitigation is not immediately possible, there are projects that mitigate the long-term effects of climate change. Fund reforestation, renewable energy and reduced reliance on carbon-based transportation to help reduce the rate of climate change and hopefully allow for a decrease in extreme heat emergencies in the future.
• Consider unconventional funding opportunities. Some projects that could have an outsized impact on extreme heat and climate change may not qualify for traditional funding. Private philanthropy has opportunities to invest in projects like urban forestry, community orchards and gardens, unconventional public transit, cooling centers, and other projects that may make a significant impact on extreme heat events.
• Support projects that invest in Critical Infrastructure and Systems. Critical infrastructure and systems – electricity and power generation in particular – are key to ensuring the continued operation of Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems. These systems are essential to reducing heat stress, particularly for those who are vulnerable because of age, disability and functional needs, or other conditions.
• Fund local initiatives that provide accessible cooling centers during heat emergencies. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention states that: “Access to air conditioning can prevent heat-related morbidity and mortality.” The provision of cooling centers alone is not, access to the centers is of key importance. People experiencing homelessness, who are living in poverty, or who have disabilities and functional needs may require additional support in the form of free transportation or other services to be able to access cooling centers.
• Look for opportunities to support people with disabilities and functional needs and other vulnerable populations.Whether it is through the provision of low- or no-cost air conditioning units, accessible transportation to cooling centers, or other supports, investments in people with disabilities and functional needs and other vulnerable populations will have a larger impact than investments in the general population.

What Funders Are Doing

• In 2018, Lord Mayor’s Charitable Foundation gave $42,275 to enliven Victoria (SEHCP Inc.) to work with key stakeholders in Dandenong – a high-risk area for people affected by heat – to develop co-designed information and strategies targeting a number of culturally and linguistically diverse (CALD), vulnerable groups. They also gave a grant in 2018 of $42,275 to IPC Health Ltd. to fund the Brimbank Hot Spots initiative, a placed-based community engagement initiative. Using a strengths-based approach, the program will raise awareness of health risks during the summer heat wave season and build the community’s capacity, resistance and responsiveness to heat waves.
• In 2015, the Khan Family Foundation gave a $1,000 grant to the Association of Physician of Pakistani Descent of North America to support the Karachi heat wave project.

Learn More

• US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Climate Change and Extreme Heat Guidebook
• Science Daily: Link Between More Frequent, Intense Heat Events and Deaths in Las Vegas
• World Health Organization: Information and Public Health Advice: Heat and Health
• United States Environmental Protection Agency: Heat Island Effect
• Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction: Cities Adapt to Extreme Heat
• Health Canada has published a large number of documents related to climate change and health as part of their healthy living series.
• CDP Issue Insight: Older Individuals
• CDP Issue Insight: People with Disabilities
• CDP Issue Insight: Drought

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Overview

Regardless of whether a lake, river or ocean is actually in view, everyone is at some risk of flooding. Flash floods, tropical storms, increased urbanization and the failing of infrastructure such as dams and levees all play a part — and cause millions (sometimes billions) of dollars in damage across the U.S. each year.

Even in 2016, a year before Hurricane Harvey broke records as one of the costliest disasters in U.S. history, the National Flood Insurance Program paid nearly $3.6 billion in flood insurance claims, primarily to those in Texas and Louisiana.

Flooding is our nation’s most common natural disaster. The Pew Charitable Trusts found that, over the past decade, flood-related events accounted for more than seven out of 10 presidential disaster declarations. Floods are also one of the leading causes of fatalities from natural disasters in the United States. About 100 flood-related deaths are reported each year, with more than half of them involving vehicles, such as drivers attempting to traverse water that is too deep.

Internationally, floods in already fragile environments can lead to a variety of issues. For example, displaced persons can find overcrowding, safety issues and sanitation challenges in camps. Long-standing stagnant water and dead animals in the streets can affect water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), while also increasing the spread of disease. And, loss of crops can have widespread impact in areas already challenged by food insecurity. In many ways, technological advances and early warning systems have helped mitigate damage. But as urbanization expands—increasing structures and population in floodplains, reducing the amount of soil available for absorbing extra water—floods will continue to grow in size and frequency.

Insurance is available for those in the United States—mandated for those in high-risk areas—but gaps remain between payouts and actual costs. In addition, more can be done in the areas of prevention by helping flooded communities build back better and by continuing to research and implement new strategies domestically and internationally related to sustainability, drainage, growth and infrastructure.

Key Facts

• The danger of floods expands beyond those in high-risk coastal areas. Tropical storms, for example, can dump heavy rains hundreds of miles inland, as seen with recent hurricanes. According to the National Flood Insurance Program, more than one in five flood insurance claims come from areas not considered high risk. A high-risk area has a 25 percent chance of flooding at least once during a 30-year period. Research by The Pew Charitable Trusts’ flood-prepared communities initiative found that eight of the 10 states that experienced the most flood-related disaster declarations over the past decade were landlocked.
• Flooding conditions are heavily affected by the existing state of the ground. Snowmelt, for example, can cause flooding when the ground is too frozen to absorb water. Difficulties with absorption also follow drought, often leading to flash flooding because of over-parched ground and debris in drainage systems.
• The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP), is constantly undergoing change. Established by the U.S. Congress in 1968, the NFIP enables property owners and renters to purchase insurance from the government against future flood damage. It was meant to be self-sustaining, however, funds were more than depleted following Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005. FEMA recently removed a “no-compete” clause for private insurers who offered government-backed coverage. The clause prevented the private companies from offering their own flood insurance, creating a monopoly for the NFIP.
• Aging infrastructure—and increased development downstream of dams—is a concern. There are more than 90,000 dams across the country—and the average age is 56 years old, according to the American Society of Civil Engineers. If a dam fails, everyone in its path can be at risk.
• Urban development increases the size and frequency of floods. According to the U.S. Geological Survey, construction and new development affect natural drainage. In addition, population growth near dams and levees can mean higher rates of injuries should a problem occur.

How to Help

• Fund awareness for prevention and mitigation. Initiatives might include homeowners preparing simple kits to have on hand in case of evacuation, outlining evacuation routes and spreading information about the dangers of driving in flooded waters.
• Help fill gaps between insurance payouts and actual costs for those in affected communities. Most homeowner’s insurance doesn’t cover against flooding and flood insurance may not cover all costs incurred.
• Support nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) already working in disaster-affected communities. Whether nationally or internationally, seek out the organizations with long-standing relationships in place. Also look for those who understand unique cultural, geographical and operational differences.
• Fund remediation of mold in disaster-affected areas. Mold continues to be a widespread concern even years after a flood.
• Support and implement the findings of relevant studies on climate change and on the effects of urbanization on flooding. Mitigating damage in the future will likely take a bigger-picture approach.
• Help provide case managers and conveners for community meetings interested in building back better. Confusion and disagreements can exist among those deciding whether to return flood damaged areas to “the way they were” prior to the event.
• Supply evacuation “go kits” for vulnerable populations. These kits might include, batteries, hand-crank weather radios, flashlights, personal hygiene items, first aid supplies, a three-day supply of food and water, clothes, rain gear, and other useful supplies.

What Funders Are Doing

Learn More

• The Pew Charitable Trusts: Flood-Prepared Communities project
• National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP)
• Effects of Urban Development on Floods, U.S. Geological Survey
• Learn about lessons for Sri Lanka from New Orleans.

 
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Overview

Hurricanes, also called typhoons or cyclones, bring a triple threat: high winds, floods and possible tornadoes. But there’s another “triple” in play: they’re getting stronger, affecting larger stretches of coastline and more Americans are moving into hurricane-prone areas. Nearly every year since 1851, at least one hurricane has reached the United States.

The storms begin in the tropical regions around the equator. In the Northwest Pacific, rotating, organized clouds and thunderstorms are called typhoons. In the South Pacific and Indian Ocean, the storms are referred to as tropical cyclones. Worldwide, approximately 40-50 storms will develop into hurricanes, typhoons or cyclones. As a storm moves across the ocean, it picks up warm, moist air from the surface and dispenses cooler air aloft. As the storm makes landfall, it loses momentum, no longer fueled by the warm ocean air. Winds of up to 185 miles per hour are just one damaging aspect. Drenching rains can cause heavy flooding inland. Wind-driven storm surge also can dangerously inundate low-lying areas.

Hurricane forecasting continues to improve in accuracy and in its ability to provide advance warning. However, it remains an inexact science because of the number of factors that can influence a hurricane’s direction and strength. Storms may increase in intensity rapidly, like Hurricane Michael in 2018 that went from a tropical depression to Category 4 storm over the course of four days. It was 2 mph short of becoming a Category 5 when it made landfall in Florida.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) ongoing Hurricane Forecast Improvement Program (HFIP) aims to forecast storms with longer lead times, greater certainty and increased public confidence.

Key Facts

• To be classified as a hurricane, typhoon or cyclone, a storm must reach wind speeds of at least 74 miles per hour (119 kilometers per hour). If a hurricane’s winds reach speeds of 111 miles per hour (179 kilometers per hour), it is upgraded to an “intense hurricane.” If a typhoon hits 150 miles per hour (241 kilometers per hour)— as Typhoon Haiyan did in 2013 — it is classified as a Super Typhoon. The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale rates hurricane strength based on maximum wind speed, however this rating system faces some controversy because it does not always capture the storm’s potential full impact that may be caused by rain and flooding.
• More people are living in harm’s way. Currently, more than 50 percent of the U.S. population lives within 50 miles of the coast and roughly 180 million people visit the coast each year.
• Storms are increasing in intensity because of climate change. Since the 1970s, hurricane intensity has increased 70-80 percent while the length of storms has increased 30 percent. Scientists correlate this to a warmer surface sea temperature. They predict that for every two degrees of sea change, wind speeds will increase by 10 percent.
• Hurricanes bring more rainfall, increasing flood risks. Because warmer air contains more moisture, as temperatures rise, scientists predict rainfall increases of 10-31 percent. In addition, changes in circulation patterns cause hurricanes to move slower, meaning more rainfall in a single location, as with Hurricane Harvey in 2017.

How To Help

• Provide disaster planning resources for vulnerable populations. Residents living in poverty in a coastal community often do not have the resources to evacuate or to prepare their homes for a hurricane. Programs that educate them on hurricane threats, help them develop evacuation plans and retrofit their homes to better withstand the winds and rain could lessen the impact of a storm on this population.
• Ensure that hurricane preparedness material is translated into multiple languages. Many island nations and Mexico are also prone to hurricanes. Sharing information and resources in native languages can help ensure more people are prepared.
• Support programs that provide psychosocial assistance. In the initial days after 2012’s Typhoon Bopha hit the Philippines, the United Nations reported that many adults were unable to assist in recovery efforts because they were in shock after the event. As a result, children were left unattended, crying and begging at the roadsides.
• Fund environmental efforts to protect and improve coral reefs and other barriers in coastal areas. The World Disaster Report 2012 reported that the Philippines could protect about a fifth of its population by improving protection of coral reefs. In Louisiana, the Coastal Master Plan has provisions to create or restore almost 34,000 acres of marsh that make up a land bridge buffer. Natural features such as marshes, wetlands, mangrove swamps and coral reefs are a primary line of defense against the coastal hazards of hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones.
• As the hurricane belt expands, help prepare those in more northern coastal regions. The hurricane threat zone is expanding due to climate change, which puts many more into its path. While those in southern coastal areas are familiar with hurricane preparedness, individuals and municipalities farther north are not as accustomed to the storms and require access to preparedness resources.

What Funders Are Doing

• The Center for Disaster Philanthropy has activated several hurricane-related funds including the 2017 and 2018 Atlantic Hurricane Season Recovery funds, the Hurricane Irma Recovery Fund, the Hurricane Harvey Recovery Fund, the Typhoon Haiyan Recovery Fund and the Hurricane Sandy Recovery Fund. The following are examples of the related grantmaking; more information is available on each fund page:

– Make the Road New York invested its $50,000 grant in expanding work with Hispanic populations in Staten Island. The funding helped them identify urgent needs and connected families for immediate help, provided legal services, helped train community members and placed them in jobs. It also enabled them to make sure the voices and interests of the community were heard as important decisions were made about the recovery effort across the affected area.

– New Jersey Future used its $25,000 grant to build Sandy-affected towns’ capacity to manage recovery issues while taking the longer-term view through planning to become more sustainable and resilient in the face of climate change. Specifically, it created a network of local recovery planning managers for three significantly impacted municipalities who focused on medium- and long-term community needs.

– Mercy in Action rebuilt a birthing center in Tanauan that was devastated by the typhoon. This clinic now provides prenatal care to about 1,500 women and supports 250-300 births at the clinic annually. Based on previous history, the clinic’s mortality rates are eight times lower than the national average.

– The Texas Tribune received $50,000 for “Public Service Journalism Covering Hurricane Harvey.” The grant will help the Tribune continue to provide coverage on Hurricane Harvey that is not already being provided by other news outlets – going deeper on policy and infrastructure issues; tracking response in Washington; and watching the long-term effects on the economy and the demographics of the region.

– The Heart of Florida United Way received $250,000 to support the rapid rehousing needs of evacuees from the Caribbean in central Florida. This grant recommendation is the outcome of a New Floridians Action Plan, led by the Florida Housing Coalition. Rapid rehousing was the first action item in the plan.

– Miami Beach Community Development Corporation was awarded $75,000, to secure long-term assistance meet the needs of older adults, formerly homeless and HIV/AIDS positive groups. This grant seeks to save about 400 affordable housing units in the Miami Beach area.

– PathStone Enterprise Center, Inc. received an award totaling $140,000 to provide direct sub-grants to at least 13 small businesses and provide technical assistance to at least 30 small businesses to support resiliency and general business administration.

• Houston Endowment Inc. awarded $1.85 million to Rice University to study the best way to protect the Houston region from catastrophic hurricane flooding.
• The New Jersey Recovery Fund gave $250,000 to the American Littoral Society to develop and advocate for policies to increase coastal resilience, restore and protect coastal waters and reduce recurring destruction.
• The Rockefeller Foundation gave $210,000 to the Nature Conservancy to engage with New York City to use natural infrastructure to build resilience in areas affected by Hurricane Sandy.

Learn More

• The National Hurricane Center (NHC)
• NHC: Cone of Uncertainty
• Hazards and Impacts of Hurricanes
• FEMA Hurricanes Fact Sheet 
• Ready.Gov: Hurricanes
• Global Tropical Cyclone and Disturbance Information
• Worldwide Tropical Cyclone Centers
• About Tropical Cyclones

 
We welcome republication of our content. Please credit the Center for Disaster Philanthropy.